Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Management

Full update April 2023

Postoperative recovery is complicated by nausea and vomiting in up to 30% of patients.^1,8 Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) can lead to dehydration, wound dehiscence, or delay hospital discharge.¹Pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic options can be used to prevent and/or treat PONV. This chart reviews antiemetic dosing, administration timing, and other considerations for managing adults with PONV.

Drugs listed in alphabetical order; NOT order of preference. Many doses are from consensus statements and may differ from product labeling.

Drug/Drug Class/Cost^a	Adult PONV Dosing Regimens	Other Considerations
Amisulpride Barhemsys Dopamine antagonist Injection: $45 (5 mg/2 mL vial)	Prevention: 5 mg IV x 1, at anesthesia induction^8,13 Treatment: 5 or 10 mg IV x 1^8,13	Consider using a 10 mg dose instead of 5 mg for treatment of established PONV in patients who failed prevention with antiemetic meds with other mechanisms of action, as 5 mg may not be effective in these patients.⁸ Studies using antiemetic doses have not reported sedation, EPS, or QTc prolongation.⁸ May be associated with injection site pain and a slight increase in prolactin levels.^8,13
Aprepitant Emend, generic (PO) Aponvie emulsion (IV) Neurokinin-1 antagonist Capsule: ~$88 (40 mg capsule) Injection: ~$58 (32 mg/4.4 mL vial)	Prevention: 40 mg PO x 1, at anesthesia induction⁸ 32 mg IV x 1, at anesthesia induction²⁸ Treatment: No data for use to treat established PONV.⁸	Aprepitant 40 mg PO more effective than ondansetron for prevention of PONV, especially 24 to 48 hours postoperatively, which may be due to its half-life of nine to 13 hours.^8,13 Headache and dizziness are common side effects.¹³ Aprepitant can reduce the efficacy of hormonal contraceptives. Patients should be advised to use a back-up contraceptive for one month following the last dose of aprepitant.^28,29 CYP3A4 substrate, inhibitor, and inducer; CYP2C9 inducer.¹³ Aprepitant 40 mg PO plus dexamethasone seems more effective than ondansetron plus dexamethasone at preventing vomiting in neurosurgery patients.⁸ FDA approval of IV emulsion was based on efficacy data from PO formulation.²⁸
Dexamethasone Corticosteroid Injection: ~$1.20 (4 mg/1 mL vial)	Prevention: 4 to 8 mg IV x 1, at or shortly after anesthesia induction^8,23 Treatment: NOT effective alone as rescue therapy for established PONV.¹	As effective as ondansetron and granisetron for PONV prevention.^8,12 Considered a first-line option for prevention. Possible additional benefit may be dexamethasone’s opioid-sparing effects.⁸ Doses used for PONV: may increase blood glucose levels by up to ~36 mg/dL in patients with diabetes.²⁷ Risk increases with dose.⁸Some centers avoid in patients with diabetes.²³ do not seem to increase infection risk or anastomotic leaks.^11,27 Dexamethasone 8 mg IV x 1 added to standard therapy (preop ondansetron and/or cyclizine) seems more effective than standard therapy alone at preventing PONV for the first 24 hours after gastrointestinal surgery[Evidence Level A-1] and may reduce the need for rescue antiemetics for up to 72 hours after surgery.¹¹
Droperidol Inapsine, generics Butyrophenone Injection: ~$4.50 (5 mg/2 mL vial)	Prevention: 0.625 mg IV x 1, at the end of surgery^8,23 Treatment: 0.625 mg IV x 1^1,13	Evidence for PONV prevention is not as strong as for aprepitant, 5-HT3 antagonists, or dexamethasone.²⁰ Combo with ondansetron seems more effective than either med alone.²² Side effects include sedation, dizziness, hallucinations, and EPS.^1,13 “Black box” warning added due to reports of QTc prolongation, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. However, for doses <2.5 mg IV/IM, electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring is not recommended and the boxed warning about QTc prolongation/torsades risk does not apply.^8,13,21 When QTc monitoring is performed, avoid droperidol if QTc >440 ms (men) or >450 ms (women).^21,23
Granisetron 5-HT3 antagonist Tablet: ~$8 (1 mg) Injection: ~$10 (1 mg/1 mL vial)	Prevention: 0.35 to 3 mg IV x 1, given at the end of surgery (1 mg is commonly used)^1,8,13 1 mg PO x 1, given 1 hour before surgery¹ Treatment: 0.1 mg IV x 1^8,13	Appears equally effective as ondansetron for PONV prevention and treatment.^1,8 Side effects include headaches, constipation (especially if given to a patient receiving opioids), and QTc prolongation.^1,8 Granisetron 0.1 mg IV is a recommended option to treat established PONV in patients who did NOT receive any meds for prevention. Doses between 0.1 mg and 3 mg have been studied, without evidence of dose responsiveness, thus lower doses are recommended.^8,13 May be the preferred 5-HT3 antagonist option (instead of ondansetron) for patients with a history of delayed PONV due to its longer half-life.^13,23 CYP3A4 substrate.¹³
Haloperidol Butyrophenone Tablet: ~$0.50 (1 mg) Injection: ~$2.80 (5 mg/1 mL vial)	Prevention: 0.5 to <2 mg IM or IV x 1, given at induction or at the end of surgery⁸ Treatment: 1 mg IV x 1¹	Has been given as an alternative to droperidol, and is similarly effective for PONV prevention.⁸ Noninferior to ondansetron for PONV treatment, but is more sedating when given IV.^1,8,14 Side effects include headache, sedation, dizziness, dry mouth, and EPS. EPS appears to be less common with IV than other routes of administration.¹³ Appears to have a similar risk for QTc prolongation as the 5-HT3 antagonists.⁹ QTc prolongation is more likely to occur with IV administration, but is rare at doses lower than 2 mg.¹⁷
Metoclopramide Dopamine antagonist Disintegrating tablet: ~$7.50 (5 mg) Injection: ~$1 (10 mg/2 mL vial)	Prevention: 10 mg IM or 10 to 25 mg IV x 1, given 15 to 30 minutes before the end of surgery^1,13 10 to 20 mg IM x 1, given before the end of surgery¹³ Treatment: 10 mg IV x 1¹	Not considered as effective as other PONV options.⁸ Combinations using metoclopramide are not usually more effective than monotherapy.¹ Weakly effective for PONV prevention at usual doses.⁸A 25 to 50 mg dose is needed to provide similar efficacy to ondansetron.⁸ Side effects include sedation, hypotension (with fast injection), and EPS (more likely with higher doses).^1,10,13 Dose may need to be adjusted based on renal function.¹³ IV doses should be given over 1 to 2 minutes to prevent feelings of restlessness and anxiety.¹⁰For IV doses >10 mg, dilute and infuse over at least 15 minutes.¹³
Naloxone, low-dose Opioid receptor antagonist Injection: ~$9.50 (0.4 mg/1 mL vial)	Prevention: 0.2 to 0.25 mcg/kg/hr by continuous infusion postoperatively^8,15 0.001 to 0.061 mcg/kg/hr delivered via patient-controlled analgesia (PCA)¹⁵	Continuous infusion route of administration more effective for PONV prevention than when given via PCA.^8,15 Reduced postoperative nausea and the need for rescue medications, but did not reduce postop vomiting [Evidence Level A-2].^8,15
Ondansetron 5-HT3 antagonist Tablet: <$1 (4 mg, 8 mg) Disintegrating tablet: <$1 (8 mg) Injection: <$1 (4 mg/2 mL vial)	Prevention: 4 mg IV x 1, given at the end of surgery⁸ 8 mg disintegrating tablet PO x 1, given 30 minutes before surgery³ Treatment: 4 mg IV x 1¹³	“Gold standard” antiemetic for prevention and treatment of PONV.⁸ Combo with droperidol seems more effective than either med alone.²² Ondansetron 4 mg IV is considered a first-line option to treat established PONV in patients who did NOT receive meds for prevention.⁸ Side effects include headache, diarrhea, and constipation.¹³ Higher doses are more likely to cause QTc prolongation; single doses should not exceed 16 mg.¹³ CYP3A4, CYP2D6, and CYP1A2 substrate.¹³
Palonosetron 5-HT3 antagonist Injection: ~$15 (0.25 mg/5 mL)	Prevention: 0.075 mg IV x 1, given right before induction^8,13	More effective than ondansetron or granisetron for PONV prevention and similar effectiveness as aprepitant.⁸ Especially helpful for prolonged PONV prevention (up to 72 hours), due to its long half-life (40 hours).¹⁰ Low risk for drug interactions, and does not prolong the QTc.¹³
Promethazine Phenothiazine Injection: <$2 (25 mg/mL vial)	Prevention: 6.25 mg to 12.5 mg IM (preferred) or IV x 1 (at start of surgery)^8,13 Treatment: 6.25 mg to 12.5 mg IM (preferred) or IV x 1^1,8 12.5 mg to 25 mg IM (preferred) or IV q 4 to 6 hours PRN^10,13	Limited evidence for efficacy for prevention of PONV.⁸ However, consider for treatment of established PONV, only when other safer alternatives can’t be used.^2,8 Deep IM injection is the preferred route of administration.¹⁰ Subcutaneous administration is contraindicated, and IV injection should be avoided, if possible.¹³ If given IV, avoid concentrations >25 mg/mL and avoid administration rates >25 mg/minute.¹³ “Black box” warning about tissue damage, including thrombophlebitis, gangrene, and amputation.¹³ Side effects include sedation and EPS.¹³Anticholinergic.¹³ Beers List drug.¹³ CYP2D6 substrate and inhibitor; CYP2B6 substrate.^10,13
Rolapitant Varubi Neurokinin-1 antagonist Tablet: ~$330 (90 mg)	Prevention: 90 to 180 mg PO given at induction (doses used in studies: 70 to 200 mg)⁸	Similar efficacy to ondansetron during the first 24 hours postoperatively, and more effective for PONV prevention during postoperative days two and three.⁸ Half-life of 180 hours.^8,18 CYP2D6 inhibitor; contraindicated with thioridazine or pimozide.¹⁸ Rolapitant currently only FDA-approved for prevention of chemo-induced nausea/vomiting.¹³
Scopolamine Transderm Scop, generics Anticholinergic Transdermal patch: ~$15 (1 mg/72 hours)	Prevention: 1 patch, applied behind the ear two hours before induction or as early as the night before surgery^8,13	As effective as ondansetron or droperidol for PONV prevention.¹ Onset of action is as early as two to four hours after application, and effects last up to 72 hours.^8,13 Not effective alone as rescue therapy for established PONV.¹ Sedating.¹³Anticholinergic. Beers List drug. Remove patch 24 hours after surgery.¹³ If not removed prior to discharge, ensure patient counseling for proper removal and disposal.²³

Drug/Drug Class/Cost^a

Adult PONV Dosing Regimens

Other Considerations

Amisulpride
Barhemsys

Dopamine antagonist

Injection: $45
(5 mg/2 mL vial)

Prevention:
5 mg IV x 1, at anesthesia induction^8,13

Treatment:
5 or 10 mg IV x 1^8,13

Consider using a 10 mg dose instead of 5 mg for treatment of established PONV in patients who failed prevention with antiemetic meds with other mechanisms of action, as 5 mg may not be effective in these patients.⁸

Studies using antiemetic doses have not reported sedation, EPS, or QTc prolongation.⁸

May be associated with injection site pain and a slight increase in prolactin levels.^8,13

Aprepitant
Emend, generic (PO)
Aponvie emulsion (IV)

Neurokinin-1 antagonist

Capsule:
~$88 (40 mg capsule)

Injection:
~$58 (32 mg/4.4 mL vial)

Prevention:
40 mg PO x 1, at anesthesia induction⁸

32 mg IV x 1, at anesthesia induction²⁸

Treatment: No data for use to treat established PONV.⁸

Aprepitant 40 mg PO more effective than ondansetron for prevention of PONV, especially 24 to 48 hours postoperatively, which may be due to its half-life of nine to 13 hours.^8,13

Headache and dizziness are common side effects.¹³

Aprepitant can reduce the efficacy of hormonal contraceptives. Patients should be advised
to use a back-up contraceptive for one month following the last dose of aprepitant.^28,29

CYP3A4 substrate, inhibitor, and inducer; CYP2C9 inducer.¹³

Aprepitant 40 mg PO plus dexamethasone seems more effective than ondansetron plus dexamethasone at preventing vomiting in neurosurgery patients.⁸

FDA approval of IV emulsion was based on efficacy data from PO formulation.²⁸

Dexamethasone

Corticosteroid

Injection:
~$1.20 (4 mg/1 mL vial)

Prevention:
4 to 8 mg IV x 1, at or shortly after anesthesia induction^8,23

Treatment: NOT effective alone as rescue therapy for established PONV.¹

As effective as ondansetron and granisetron for PONV prevention.^8,12 Considered a first-line option for prevention.

Possible additional benefit may be dexamethasone’s opioid-sparing effects.⁸

Doses used for PONV:

may increase blood glucose levels by up to ~36 mg/dL in patients with diabetes.²⁷ Risk increases with dose.⁸Some centers avoid in patients with diabetes.²³
do not seem to increase infection risk or anastomotic leaks.^11,27

Dexamethasone 8 mg IV x 1 added to standard therapy (preop ondansetron and/or cyclizine) seems more effective than standard therapy alone at preventing PONV for the first 24 hours after gastrointestinal surgery[Evidence Level A-1] and may reduce the need for rescue antiemetics for up to 72 hours after surgery.¹¹

Droperidol

Inapsine, generics

Butyrophenone

Injection:
~$4.50 (5 mg/2 mL vial)

Prevention:
0.625 mg IV x 1, at the end of surgery^8,23

Treatment:
0.625 mg IV x 1^1,13

Evidence for PONV prevention is not as strong as for aprepitant, 5-HT3 antagonists, or dexamethasone.²⁰ Combo with ondansetron seems more effective than either med alone.²²

Side effects include sedation, dizziness, hallucinations, and EPS.^1,13

“Black box” warning added due to reports of QTc prolongation, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. However, for doses <2.5 mg IV/IM, electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring is not recommended and the boxed warning about QTc prolongation/torsades risk does not apply.^8,13,21 When QTc monitoring is performed, avoid droperidol if QTc >440 ms (men) or >450 ms (women).^21,23

Granisetron

5-HT3 antagonist

Tablet: ~$8 (1 mg)

Injection: ~$10
(1 mg/1 mL vial)

Prevention:
0.35 to 3 mg IV x 1, given at the end of surgery (1 mg is commonly used)^1,8,13

1 mg PO x 1, given
1 hour before surgery¹

Treatment:
0.1 mg IV x 1^8,13

Appears equally effective as ondansetron for PONV prevention and treatment.^1,8

Side effects include headaches, constipation (especially if given to a patient receiving opioids), and QTc prolongation.^1,8

Granisetron 0.1 mg IV is a recommended option to treat established PONV in patients who did NOT receive any meds for prevention. Doses between 0.1 mg and 3 mg have been studied, without evidence of dose responsiveness, thus lower doses are recommended.^8,13

May be the preferred 5-HT3 antagonist option (instead of ondansetron) for patients with a history of delayed PONV due to its longer half-life.^13,23

CYP3A4 substrate.¹³

Haloperidol

Butyrophenone

Tablet: ~$0.50 (1 mg)

Injection: ~$2.80
(5 mg/1 mL vial)

Prevention:
0.5 to <2 mg IM or IV
x 1, given at induction or at the end of surgery⁸

Treatment:
1 mg IV x 1¹

Has been given as an alternative to droperidol, and is similarly effective for PONV prevention.⁸

Noninferior to ondansetron for PONV treatment, but is more sedating when given IV.^1,8,14

Side effects include headache, sedation, dizziness, dry mouth, and EPS. EPS appears to be less common with IV than other routes of administration.¹³

Appears to have a similar risk for QTc prolongation as the 5-HT3 antagonists.⁹ QTc prolongation is more likely to occur with IV administration, but is rare at doses lower than 2 mg.¹⁷

Metoclopramide

Dopamine antagonist

Disintegrating tablet:
~$7.50 (5 mg)

Injection:
~$1 (10 mg/2 mL vial)

Prevention:
10 mg IM or 10 to
25 mg IV x 1, given 15 to 30 minutes before the end of surgery^1,13

10 to 20 mg IM x 1, given before the end of surgery¹³

Treatment:
10 mg IV x 1¹

Not considered as effective as other PONV options.⁸

Combinations using metoclopramide are not usually more effective than monotherapy.¹

Weakly effective for PONV prevention at usual doses.⁸A 25 to 50 mg dose is needed to provide similar efficacy to ondansetron.⁸

Side effects include sedation, hypotension (with fast injection), and EPS (more likely with higher doses).^1,10,13

Dose may need to be adjusted based on renal function.¹³

IV doses should be given over 1 to 2 minutes to prevent feelings of restlessness and anxiety.¹⁰For IV doses >10 mg, dilute and infuse over at least 15 minutes.¹³

Naloxone, low-dose

Opioid receptor antagonist

Injection:
~$9.50 (0.4 mg/1 mL vial)

Prevention:
0.2 to 0.25 mcg/kg/hr by continuous infusion postoperatively^8,15

0.001 to 0.061 mcg/kg/hr delivered via patient-controlled analgesia (PCA)¹⁵

Continuous infusion route of administration more effective for PONV prevention than when given via PCA.^8,15

Reduced postoperative nausea and the need for rescue medications, but did not reduce postop vomiting [Evidence Level A-2].^8,15

Ondansetron

5-HT3 antagonist

Tablet: <$1 (4 mg, 8 mg)

Disintegrating tablet:
<$1 (8 mg)

Injection:
<$1 (4 mg/2 mL vial)

Prevention:
4 mg IV x 1, given at the end of surgery⁸

8 mg disintegrating tablet PO x 1, given 30 minutes before surgery³

Treatment:
4 mg IV x 1¹³

“Gold standard” antiemetic for prevention and treatment of PONV.⁸

Combo with droperidol seems more effective than either med alone.²²

Ondansetron 4 mg IV is considered a first-line option to treat established PONV in patients who did NOT receive meds for prevention.⁸

Side effects include headache, diarrhea, and constipation.¹³

Higher doses are more likely to cause QTc prolongation; single doses should not exceed 16 mg.¹³

CYP3A4, CYP2D6, and CYP1A2 substrate.¹³

Palonosetron

5-HT3 antagonist

Injection:
~$15 (0.25 mg/5 mL)

Prevention:
0.075 mg IV x 1, given right before induction^8,13

More effective than ondansetron or granisetron for PONV prevention and similar effectiveness as aprepitant.⁸

Especially helpful for prolonged PONV prevention (up to 72 hours), due to its long half-life (40 hours).¹⁰

Low risk for drug interactions, and does not prolong the QTc.¹³

Promethazine

Phenothiazine

Injection:
<$2 (25 mg/mL vial)

Prevention:
6.25 mg to 12.5 mg IM (preferred) or IV x 1
(at start of surgery)^8,13

Treatment:
6.25 mg to 12.5 mg IM (preferred) or IV x 1^1,8

12.5 mg to 25 mg IM (preferred) or IV q 4 to
6 hours PRN^10,13

Limited evidence for efficacy for prevention of PONV.⁸ However, consider for treatment of established PONV, only when other safer alternatives can’t be used.^2,8

Deep IM injection is the preferred route of administration.¹⁰ Subcutaneous administration is contraindicated, and IV injection should be avoided, if possible.¹³ If given IV, avoid concentrations >25 mg/mL and avoid administration rates >25 mg/minute.¹³

“Black box” warning about tissue damage, including thrombophlebitis, gangrene, and amputation.¹³

Side effects include sedation and EPS.¹³Anticholinergic.¹³ Beers List drug.¹³

CYP2D6 substrate and inhibitor; CYP2B6 substrate.^10,13

Rolapitant

Varubi

Neurokinin-1 antagonist

Tablet:
~$330 (90 mg)

Prevention:
90 to 180 mg PO given at induction (doses used in studies: 70 to 200 mg)⁸

Similar efficacy to ondansetron during the first 24 hours postoperatively, and more effective for PONV prevention during postoperative days two and three.⁸

Half-life of 180 hours.^8,18

CYP2D6 inhibitor; contraindicated with thioridazine or pimozide.¹⁸

Rolapitant currently only FDA-approved for prevention of chemo-induced nausea/vomiting.¹³

Scopolamine

Transderm Scop, generics

Anticholinergic

Transdermal patch:
~$15 (1 mg/72 hours)

Prevention:
1 patch, applied behind the ear two hours before induction or as early as the night before surgery^8,13

As effective as ondansetron or droperidol for PONV prevention.¹

Onset of action is as early as two to four hours after application, and effects last up to
72 hours.^8,13

Not effective alone as rescue therapy for established PONV.¹

Sedating.¹³Anticholinergic. Beers List drug.

Remove patch 24 hours after surgery.¹³ If not removed prior to discharge, ensure patient counseling for proper removal and disposal.²³

Non-Pharmacologic Management of PONV

Options listed in alphabetical order; NOT order of preference. Evidence is limited.

Intervention	Adult PONV Dosing Regimens	Therapeutic Considerations
IV hydration Lactated Ringer’s (LR), Dextrose 5% in water (D5W)/LR, Normal saline (NS) Crystalloids	Prevention: 10 to 30 mL/kg IV infusion^7,8	Reduces both early and late PONV.^7,8 May reduce the need for rescue antiemetics.^7,8 May be more effective for late onset PONV prevention, than for PONV in first 24 hours following surgery.¹⁹
Transdermal stimulation ReliefBand, etc Transcutaneous electrical acupoint stimulation Cost:⁶ ~$100 (ReliefBand 50 Hours)	Prevention: Follow product labeling for specific instructions. Uses conductivity gel.⁶ Usually applied to acupoint P6.²⁵ Stimulation level is adjusted per patient tolerability.²⁵	May be covered by insurance.²⁴ Reduces risk and severity of PONV and need for rescue antiemetics.^25,26 Most studies have been done in China, as part of a multimodal antiemetic strategy in patients receiving general anesthesia^25,26 Side effects may include redness, itching, and swelling at the application site.²⁶
70% isopropyl alcohol Kendall Webcol prep pad, etc Aromatherapy	Treatment: 3 deep inhalations q 5 to 15 minutes PRN, repeated up to 3 times.^4,5 Fold prep pad in half and hold 0.5 inches below patient nares.⁴	Is thought to act at multiple sites within the chemoreceptor trigger zone.⁴ Fast onset (~10 to 15 minutes), but short-lived.^4,5 May reduce the use of rescue antiemetics [Evidence Level B-2].¹⁶

Intervention

Adult PONV Dosing Regimens

Therapeutic Considerations

IV hydration
Lactated Ringer’s (LR),
Dextrose 5% in water (D5W)/LR, Normal saline (NS)

Crystalloids

Prevention:
10 to 30 mL/kg IV infusion^7,8

Reduces both early and late PONV.^7,8

May reduce the need for rescue antiemetics.^7,8

May be more effective for late onset PONV prevention, than for PONV in first 24 hours following surgery.¹⁹

Transdermal stimulation
ReliefBand, etc

Transcutaneous electrical acupoint stimulation

Cost:⁶ ~$100
(ReliefBand 50 Hours)

Prevention:
Follow product labeling for specific instructions.

Uses conductivity gel.⁶

Usually applied to acupoint P6.²⁵

Stimulation level is adjusted per patient tolerability.²⁵

May be covered by insurance.²⁴

Reduces risk and severity of PONV and need for rescue antiemetics.^25,26

Most studies have been done in China, as part of a multimodal antiemetic strategy in patients receiving general anesthesia^25,26

Side effects may include redness, itching, and swelling at the application site.²⁶

70% isopropyl alcohol
Kendall Webcol prep pad, etc

Aromatherapy

Treatment:
3 deep inhalations q 5 to 15 minutes PRN, repeated up to 3 times.^4,5

Fold prep pad in half and hold 0.5 inches below patient nares.⁴

Is thought to act at multiple sites within the chemoreceptor trigger zone.⁴

Fast onset (~10 to 15 minutes), but short-lived.^4,5

May reduce the use of rescue antiemetics
[Evidence Level B-2].¹⁶

Pricing based on wholesale acquisition cost (WAC), for generic when available. Medication pricing by Elsevier, accessed March 2023.

Abbreviations: EPS = extrapyramidal symptoms; IV = intravenous; PO = oral; PONV = postoperative nausea and vomiting; PRN = as needed; QTc = corrected QT-interval.

Levels of Evidence

In accordance with our goal of providing Evidence-Based information, we are citing the LEVEL OF EVIDENCE for the clinical recommendations we publish.

Level	Definition	Study Quality
A	Good-quality patient-oriented evidence.*	High-quality randomized controlled trial (RCT) Systematic review (SR)/Meta-analysis of RCTs with consistent findings All-or-none study
B	Inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence.*	Lower-quality RCT SR/Meta-analysis with low-quality clinical trials or of studies with inconsistent findings Cohort study Case control study
C	Consensus; usual practice; expert opinion; disease-oriented evidence (e.g., physiologic or surrogate endpoints); case series for studies of diagnosis, treatment, prevention, or screening.

*Outcomes that matter to patients (e.g., morbidity, mortality, symptom improvement, quality of life).

[Adapted from Ebell MH, Siwek J, Weiss BD, et al. Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT): a patient-centered approach to grading evidence in the medical literature. Am Fam Physician 2004;69:548-56. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0201/p548.html.]

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Cite this document as follows: Clinical Resource, Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Management. Pharmacist’s Letter/Pharmacy Technician’s Letter/Prescriber’s Letter. April 2023. [390431]

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